Chapter 1: Parts of Speech
The Parts of Speech are the basic building blocks of the English language, categorizing words based on their function in a sentence. The eight parts of speech are Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection.
1. Noun
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Types of Nouns
- Common Noun: Refers to general names (e.g., city, boy, book).
- Proper Noun: Refers to specific names (e.g., Delhi, Rahul, The Bible).
- Collective Noun: Represents a group (e.g., bunch, herd, team).
- Abstract Noun: Refers to ideas, emotions, or qualities (e.g., love, bravery, honesty).
- Countable Noun: Can be counted (e.g., apples, chairs).
- Uncountable Noun: Cannot be counted (e.g., water, milk, air).
2. Pronoun
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Types of Pronouns
- Personal Pronoun: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
- Reflexive Pronoun: Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves.
- Demonstrative Pronoun: This, that, these, those.
- Relative Pronoun: Who, whom, whose, which, that.
- Interrogative Pronoun: Who, what, which, whose, whom.
- Indefinite Pronoun: Some, any, someone, nobody, everything.
3. Verb
A verb is a word that expresses an action or state of being.
Types of Verbs
- Transitive Verb: Requires an object (e.g., She writes a letter).
- Intransitive Verb: Does not require an object (e.g., He sleeps peacefully).
- Auxiliary Verb: Helps the main verb (e.g., is, am, are, has, have, was, were).
- Modal Verb: Expresses ability, possibility, necessity (e.g., can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would).
4. Adjective
An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.
Types of Adjectives
- Descriptive Adjective: Describes quality (e.g., beautiful, tall).
- Quantitative Adjective: Shows quantity (e.g., some, many, few).
- Demonstrative Adjective: Points out something (e.g., this, that, these, those).
- Possessive Adjective: Shows ownership (e.g., my, your, his, her, their, our).
- Interrogative Adjective: Used in questions (e.g., which, what, whose).
5. Adverb
An adverb describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Types of Adverbs
- Adverb of Manner: Describes how an action happens (e.g., quickly, slowly).
- Adverb of Place: Describes where an action happens (e.g., here, there, everywhere).
- Adverb of Time: Describes when an action happens (e.g., today, now, yesterday).
- Adverb of Frequency: Describes how often something happens (e.g., always, never, sometimes).
- Adverb of Degree: Describes the intensity of an action (e.g., very, too, almost).
6. Preposition
A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence.
Types of Prepositions
- Preposition of Time: Shows time relationship (e.g., in, on, at, before, after).
- Preposition of Place: Shows location (e.g., in, on, under, between).
- Preposition of Direction: Shows movement (e.g., to, into, onto, towards).
- Preposition of Cause: Shows reason (e.g., because of, due to).
- Preposition of Manner: Shows how something happens (e.g., by, with, like).
7. Conjunction
A conjunction connects words, phrases, or sentences.
Types of Conjunctions
- Coordinating Conjunction: Joins words or sentences of equal rank (e.g., and, but, or, so, yet).
- Subordinating Conjunction: Connects dependent and independent clauses (e.g., because, although, since, while).
- Correlative Conjunction: Comes in pairs (e.g., either…or, neither…nor, both…and).
8. Interjection
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses sudden emotion.
Examples & Usage
- Wow! This painting is amazing.
- Ouch! That hurt.
- Hurray! We won the match.
- Alas! He lost the game.
Chapter 2: Tenses
A tense refers to the time of an action or event. There are three main tenses:
- Present Tense (Describes current or habitual actions)
- Past Tense (Describes completed actions)
- Future Tense (Describes actions that will happen)
Each of these tenses has four forms:
- Simple (Basic form)
- Continuous (Ongoing action)
- Perfect (Completed action)
- Perfect Continuous (Action continuing over time)
1. Present Tense
(i) Simple Present Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + base verb (+ s/es for he/she/it)
- Negative: Subject + do/does + not + base verb
- Interrogative: Do/Does + subject + base verb?
Examples:
- I play football every day.
- She writes a letter.
- They do not eat junk food.
- Does he like coffee?
Usage:
✔ Habitual actions (I wake up at 6 AM.)
✔ Universal truths (The sun rises in the east.)
✔ Fixed schedules (The train departs at 5 PM.)
(ii) Present Continuous Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + is/am/are + verb + ing
- Negative: Subject + is/am/are + not + verb + ing
- Interrogative: Is/Am/Are + subject + verb + ing?
Examples:
- She is studying for exams.
- They are not playing cricket now.
- Are you watching TV?
Usage:
✔ Actions happening now (She is reading.)
✔ Temporary situations (I am living in Mumbai for now.)
✔ Future arrangements (We are meeting tomorrow.)
(iii) Present Perfect Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + has/have + past participle
- Negative: Subject + has/have + not + past participle
- Interrogative: Has/Have + subject + past participle?
Examples:
- I have finished my homework.
- She has not visited the museum.
- Have you seen my keys?
Usage:
✔ Actions completed recently (I have just eaten.)
✔ Experiences (I have visited London.)
✔ Unfinished past actions (She has lived here for 10 years.)
(iv) Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + has/have + been + verb + ing
- Negative: Subject + has/have + not + been + verb + ing
- Interrogative: Has/Have + subject + been + verb + ing?
Examples:
- She has been studying since morning.
- They have not been working for long.
- Have you been practicing regularly?
Usage:
✔ Actions that started in the past and continue now (I have been reading this book for two hours.)
2. Past Tense
(i) Simple Past Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + past verb
- Negative: Subject + did + not + base verb
- Interrogative: Did + subject + base verb?
Examples:
- I watched a movie yesterday.
- She did not go to school.
- Did they call you?
Usage:
✔ Completed actions in the past (He went to London.)
✔ Past habits (She always walked to school.)
(ii) Past Continuous Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + was/were + verb + ing
- Negative: Subject + was/were + not + verb + ing
- Interrogative: Was/Were + subject + verb + ing?
Examples:
- They were playing football.
- She was not reading a book.
- Was he watching TV?
Usage:
✔ Ongoing past actions (I was sleeping when he called.)
✔ Two past actions happening at the same time (She was cooking while I was studying.)
(iii) Past Perfect Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + had + past participle
- Negative: Subject + had + not + past participle
- Interrogative: Had + subject + past participle?
Examples:
- He had finished his work before dinner.
- She had not seen that movie.
- Had they left before you arrived?
Usage:
✔ Action completed before another past action (She had left before I arrived.)
(iv) Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + had been + verb + ing
- Negative: Subject + had not been + verb + ing
- Interrogative: Had + subject + been + verb + ing?
Examples:
- I had been studying for three hours before the power cut.
- She had not been feeling well.
- Had he been working all night?
Usage:
✔ Actions continuing before another past event (She had been waiting for an hour before the bus came.)
3. Future Tense
(i) Simple Future Tense
Structure:
- Affirmative: Subject + will + base verb
- Negative: Subject + will + not + base verb
- Interrogative: Will + subject + base verb?
Examples:
- I will visit my grandmother tomorrow.
- She will not attend the meeting.
- Will you help me?
(ii) Future Continuous Tense
Structure:
- Subject + will be + verb + ing
Examples:
- They will be playing football.
(iii) Future Perfect Tense
Structure:
- Subject + will have + past participle
Examples:
- She will have finished her homework by 8 PM.
(iv) Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Structure:
- Subject + will have been + verb + ing
Examples:
- By next year, I will have been working here for five years.
Exercise Solutions: Sentence Transformation and Usage
1. Change the sentences into different tenses:
(Simple Present) She sings a song.
- Past: She sang a song.
- Future: She will sing a song.
(Present Continuous) I am reading a book.
- Past: I was reading a book.
- Future: I will be reading a book.
(Past Perfect) They had finished their work.
- Present: They have finished their work.
- Future: They will have finished their work.
Chapter 3: Articles and Determiners
1. Articles
Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. There are two types of articles:
- Definite Article: The
- Indefinite Articles: A, An
Usage of ‘A’ and ‘An’ (Indefinite Articles)
We use a and an when referring to something non-specific or general.
‘A’ is used before words that begin with a consonant sound.
- Example: a car, a dog, a university (because ‘university’ sounds like "yoo-niversity").
‘An’ is used before words that begin with a vowel sound.
- Example: an apple, an hour, an honest man (because ‘hour’ and ‘honest’ have a silent ‘h’ and begin with a vowel sound).
Usage of ‘The’ (Definite Article)
We use the when referring to something specific.
- Example:
- The sun is shining brightly. (There is only one sun.)
- I saw the movie you recommended. (A specific movie.)
- The Himalayas are beautiful. (A unique place.)
✅ ‘The’ is used with:
- Unique things (the moon, the Earth, the Taj Mahal).
- Superlatives (the best, the tallest, the most beautiful).
- Musical instruments (She plays the piano.).
- Names of rivers, mountains, and oceans (the Ganges, the Himalayas, the Pacific Ocean).
- When mentioning something for the second time in a conversation (I saw a cat. The cat was sleeping.).
❌ ‘The’ is NOT used with:
- Names of people (Rahul, Priya, Shakespeare).
- Names of languages (English, Hindi).
- General plural nouns (Dogs are friendly.).
2. Determiners
A determiner is a word placed before a noun to show quantity, possession, specificity, or emphasis.
Types of Determiners
(i) Demonstrative Determiners (Point out specific things)
- This, That, These, Those
- This book is interesting. (Singular, near)
- These flowers are beautiful. (Plural, near)
- That car belongs to my uncle. (Singular, far)
- Those birds are flying high. (Plural, far)
(ii) Possessive Determiners (Show ownership)
- My, Your, His, Her, Its, Our, Their
- This is my pen.
- She lost her wallet.
- They are going to their house.
(iii) Quantifiers (Express Quantity or Amount)
- Some, Any, Much, Many, Few, Little, Several, A lot of, Enough
- I have some books.
- She doesn’t have any sugar.
- There are many students in the class.
- We have a lot of work to do.
- He drank little water. (Very small quantity)
- A few guests arrived early. (Some, but not many)
💡 Difference Between ‘Few’ and ‘Little’
- Few is used with countable nouns (few chairs).
- Little is used with uncountable nouns (little milk).
(iv) Distributive Determiners (Refer to Individual Members of a Group)
- Each, Every, Either, Neither
- Each student received a gift. (Refers to individual members)
- Every child deserves love. (Refers to all members in a group)
- Either dress will suit you. (One of two choices)
- Neither answer is correct. (None of the two choices)
(v) Interrogative Determiners (Used in Questions)
- Which, What, Whose
- Which book do you prefer?
- What color is your car?
- Whose bag is this?
Exercise Solutions
1. Fill in the blanks with correct articles (‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’):
- She adopted a puppy from the shelter.
- We visited the Eiffel Tower last summer.
- He is an honest man.
- I have a meeting at 3 PM.
- She gave me an orange to eat.
- The moon looks bright tonight.
2. Fill in the blanks with correct determiners:
- Each student must submit their assignment.
- She drank some water after running.
- Do you have any questions?
- I bought a few apples from the market.
- He has little patience when waiting in lines.
- We invited several friends to the party.
- Which dress do you like more?
- Neither of the answers was correct.
- My sister is a doctor.
- Their house is near the park.
3. Sentence Correction
Find and correct the errors in the following sentences:
I have a apple. ❌
- ✅ I have an apple.
We saw an amazing sunset at beach. ❌
- ✅ We saw an amazing sunset at the beach.
She has much books in her library. ❌
- ✅ She has many books in her library.
There is few sugar in the jar. ❌
- ✅ There is little sugar in the jar.
Each of the two players performed well. ❌
- ✅ Either of the two players performed well.
4. Exercise Solutions
1. Convert the following sentences into Passive Voice:
(i) Simple Present:
Active: The chef cooks delicious meals.
Passive: Delicious meals are cooked by the chef.
(ii) Present Continuous:
Active: The mechanic is repairing the car.
Passive: The car is being repaired by the mechanic.
(iii) Present Perfect:
Active: She has written a novel.
Passive: A novel has been written by her.
(iv) Simple Past:
Active: The police arrested the thief.
Passive: The thief was arrested by the police.
(v) Past Continuous:
Active: They were watching a match.
Passive: A match was being watched by them.
(vi) Past Perfect:
Active: The manager had signed the agreement.
Passive: The agreement had been signed by the manager.
(vii) Simple Future:
Active: He will complete the project.
Passive: The project will be completed by him.
(viii) Future Perfect:
Active: They will have finished the construction.
Passive: The construction will have been finished by them.
5. Special Cases
If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense in the reported speech may not change.
- Direct: He says, "I am tired."
- Indirect: He says that he is tired.
Imperatives (Commands, Requests)
- Direct: She said, "Close the door."
- Indirect: She told me to close the door.
- Direct: He said, "Please help me."
- Indirect: He asked me to help him.
Interrogative Sentences (Questions)
- In indirect speech, the word order changes, and the question becomes a statement.
Direct: She asked, "Are you coming to the party?"
Indirect: She asked if I was coming to the party.
Direct: He said, "Where is your book?"
Indirect: He asked where my book was.
- In indirect speech, the word order changes, and the question becomes a statement.
6. Exercise Solutions
(i) Convert the following sentences from Direct to Indirect Speech:
Direct: She said, "I am studying for the exam."
Indirect: She said that she was studying for the exam.Direct: He asked, "Will you help me with this?"
Indirect: He asked if I would help him with that.Direct: "I have finished my homework," he said.
Indirect: He said that he had finished his homework.Direct: "Do you like ice cream?" she asked.
Indirect: She asked if I liked ice cream.Direct: "I will call you tomorrow," she said.
Indirect: She said that she would call me the next day.
(ii) Convert the following sentences from Indirect to Direct Speech:
Indirect: She told me that she was going to the market.
Direct: She said, "I am going to the market."Indirect: He asked if I could lend him a pen.
Direct: He asked, "Can you lend me a pen?"Indirect: They said that they would come later.
Direct: They said, "We will come later."Indirect: He asked if she knew the answer.
Direct: He asked, "Do you know the answer?"Indirect: She asked me to pass the salt.
Direct: She said, "Pass me the salt."
Chapter 6: Subject-Verb Agreement
1. Rules for Singular & Plural Subjects
✅ The verb must agree with the subject in number and person.
(A) Singular Subjects Take Singular Verbs
- Example:
- He writes a letter.
- The dog barks loudly.
(B) Plural Subjects Take Plural Verbs
- Example:
- They write letters.
- The dogs bark loudly.
(C) Subjects Joined by ‘And’ Take a Plural Verb
- Example:
- Tom and Jerry are best friends.
(D) Singular Subjects Connected by ‘Or’ or ‘Nor’ Take a Singular Verb
- Example:
- Neither the teacher nor the student is present.
(E) Collective Nouns Take Singular or Plural Verbs Based on Meaning
- Example:
- The team is playing well. (As a unit)
- The team are discussing their strategies. (As individuals)
2. Common Errors & Corrections
✅ Incorrect: She write a letter.
✅ Correct: She writes a letter.
✅ Incorrect: The boy and his friend is playing.
✅ Correct: The boy and his friend are playing.
✅ Incorrect: Neither of the boys were there.
✅ Correct: Neither of the boys was there.
3. Exercise Solutions
Identify and correct the mistakes:
- The book are on the table. → The book is on the table.
- The teacher and the students was in the classroom. → The teacher and the students were in the classroom.
- Either my brother or my sister have the key. → Either my brother or my sister has the key.
Chapter 7: Modals
1. Definition and Usage
Modals are auxiliary verbs that express ability, possibility, permission, necessity, or obligation.
| Modal | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Can | Ability, Permission | She can swim well. |
| Could | Past ability, Polite request | He could run fast when he was young. |
| Shall | Future (Formal), Suggestions | We shall meet tomorrow. |
| Should | Advice, Obligation | You should eat healthy food. |
| Will | Future, Determination | I will help you. |
| Would | Past habit, Politeness | She would always read before bed. |
| May | Permission, Possibility | May I come in? It may rain today. |
| Might | Possibility (Less certain) | He might come later. |
| Must | Strong necessity, Obligation | You must wear a seatbelt. |
2. Exercise Solutions
Fill in the blanks with the correct modal:
- You should drink enough water every day.
- He may arrive late due to traffic.
- She can speak three languages fluently.
- We must follow the rules.
- If I were you, I would apologize.
Chapter 8: Punctuation
1. Usage of Common Punctuation Marks
| Punctuation | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Comma (,) | Separates items, clauses | I bought apples, oranges, and bananas. |
| Full Stop (.) | Ends a statement | She is reading a book. |
| Question Mark (?) | Ends a question | Where are you going? |
| Exclamation Mark (!) | Expresses emotion | Wow! That’s amazing! |
| Quotation Marks (“ ”) | For direct speech or quotes | He said, "I love books." |
| Apostrophe (’) | Shows possession or contractions | John’s book, It’s raining. |
2. Exercise Solutions
Correct the punctuation:
- where are you going → Where are you going?
- she said I am happy → She said, "I am happy."
- its a beautiful day → It’s a beautiful day.
Chapter 9: Clauses and Phrases
1. Types of Clauses
(A) Main Clause (Independent Clause)
A complete sentence that makes sense on its own.
- Example: I love reading because it is fun.
(B) Subordinate Clause (Dependent Clause)
A clause that depends on the main clause to complete its meaning.
- Example: I love reading because it is fun.
(C) Relative Clause
A clause that gives more information about a noun using who, whom, whose, which, that.
- Example: The boy who won the race is my friend.
2. Exercise Solutions
Identify the clause type:
- She left because she was tired. → Subordinate Clause
- I went to the park after school. → Main Clause
- The book that I borrowed from you is interesting. → Relative Clause
Chapter 10: Synonyms and Antonyms
1. Commonly Used Words with Synonyms & Antonyms
| Word | Synonym | Antonym |
|---|---|---|
| Happy | Joyful, Cheerful | Sad, Miserable |
| Big | Large, Huge | Small, Tiny |
| Fast | Quick, Rapid | Slow, Sluggish |
| Brave | Courageous, Bold | Cowardly, Fearful |
| Strong | Powerful, Sturdy | Weak, Feeble |
2. Exercise Solutions
Match the words with their correct synonym or antonym:
- Happy → Joyful (Synonym)
- Big → Tiny (Antonym)
- Fast → Quick (Synonym)
- Brave → Fearful (Antonym)
- Strong → Feeble (Antonym)
Chapter 11: Homophones and Homonyms
Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings.
Homonyms are words that are spelled the same and sound the same but have different meanings.
Difference and Usage
Homophones:
Example: "Pair" (a set of two) and "Pear" (a fruit).
Sentence: She bought a pair of shoes and ate a pear.
Example: "Flour" (used in baking) and "Flower" (a plant).
Sentence: She used flour to bake a cake and picked a flower from the garden.
Homonyms:
Example: "Bat" (an animal) and "Bat" (used in sports).
Sentence: The bat flew at night, and he hit the ball with his bat.
Example: "Bank" (river side) and "Bank" (financial institution).
Sentence: We sat by the bank of the river and went to the bank to deposit money.
Exercise Solutions
Identify the correct homophone:
The (sun/son) is shining brightly.
Answer: sun
She (ate/eight) the entire pizza.
Answer: ate
Identify the correct homonym:
The (bear/bear) was in the forest.
Answer: bear (animal)
He could not (bear/bear) the pain.
Answer: bear (tolerate)
Writing Skills Section
Practice writing sentences using homophones and homonyms to avoid confusion in meaning.
Chapter 12: Letter Writing
Formal Letters
Format:
Sender’s Address
Date
Receiver’s Address
Subject
Salutation (Dear Sir/Madam)
Body (Introduction, Main Content, Conclusion)
Closing (Yours sincerely/faithfully)
Signature
Example:
To Principal: Requesting a library extension.
Body: "I am writing to request an extension in library hours to help students prepare for exams."
Business Letter:
Example: Placing an order for books.
Body: "I would like to place an order for 50 copies of 'English Grammar for Class 7'."
Informal Letters
Format:
Sender’s Address
Date
Salutation (Dear Friend/Family Member)
Body (Casual tone)
Closing (Yours lovingly/best wishes)
Signature
Example:
To a Friend: Inviting for a birthday party.
Body: "I am hosting a birthday party on 15th October and would love for you to join us."
Chapter 13: Essay Writing
Structure
Introduction: Introduce the topic.
Body: Discuss main points with examples.
Conclusion: Summarize and give a closing thought.
Topics
My Hobby:
Introduction: "My hobby is painting, which helps me relax and express my creativity."
Body: "I enjoy using watercolors and often paint landscapes."
Conclusion: "Painting is not just a hobby but a way to connect with my inner self."
Importance of Education:
Introduction: "Education is the key to success and a better future."
Body: "It helps us gain knowledge, develop skills, and become responsible citizens."
Conclusion: "Without education, we cannot achieve our dreams or contribute to society."
Chapter 14: Story Writing
Creative Writing Techniques
Use descriptive language, dialogue, and a clear plot.
Include a moral or lesson.
Sample Story with Moral
Title: The Greedy Dog
Story: A dog with a bone sees its reflection in the water and barks, losing its bone.
Moral: "Greed leads to loss."
Chapter 15: Notice Writing
Format
Heading: NOTICE
Date
Subject
Body (What, When, Where, Who)
Signature
Example
School Event:
Body: "A science exhibition will be held on 20th October in the school auditorium. All students are invited to participate."
Chapter 16: Paragraph Writing
Types
Descriptive: Describes a person, place, or thing.
Example: "My school is a large building with a playground and a library."
Narrative: Tells a story.
Example: "Last summer, I visited my grandparents in the village."
Expository: Explains an idea.
Example: "Pollution is harmful to the environment and human health."
Chapter 17: Dialogue Writing
Conversations and Role Play
Use quotation marks and proper punctuation.
Example:
Teacher: "Have you completed your homework?"
Student: "Yes, I have."
Chapter 18: Report Writing
Format
Heading
Byline (Reporter’s name)
Place and Date
Body (What, When, Where, Who, How)
Example
Newspaper Report:
Body: "A charity event was organized by the local community on 10th October to raise funds for underprivileged children."
Chapter 19: Message Writing
Short Notes
Be concise and clear.
Example:
"Mom, I have gone to the library. Will return by 5 PM. - Riya"
Chapter 20: Comprehension Passages
Tips for Effective Reading
Read the passage carefully.
Underline key points.
Answer questions in your own words.
Example
Passage: "The sun rises in the east and sets in the west."
Question: Where does the sun rise?
Answer: The sun rises in the east.
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